William Cameron Forbes (May 21, 1870 – December 24, 1959) was an American investment banker and diplomat. He served as Governor-General of the Philippines from 1909 to 1913 and Ambassador of the United States to Japan from 1930 to 1932.
He was the son of William Hathaway Forbes, president of the Bell Telephone Company, and wife Edith Emerson, a daughter of Ralph Waldo Emerson. He was grandson of botanist Francis Blackwell Forbes. After graduating from Harvard in 1892, he embarked on a business career, eventually becoming a partner in J. M. Forbes and Company.[1]
During the administration of President William Howard Taft, Forbes was Governor-General of the Philippines from 1909 to 1913.[2] Previously, during the administration of President Theodore Roosevelt, he had been Commissioner of Commerce and Police in the American colonial Insular Government of the Philippines from 1904 through 1908; and he was Vice Governor from 1908 through 1909.[1][3]
Forbes, who was a polo enthusiast, founded the Manila Polo Club in 1919.[4] It was the first polo field in the Philippines.[5] Forbes had envisioned the club as a venue for polo and leisure for "gentlemen of a certain class" assigned to work in the Philippines like himself.[6] vendu He served as delegate of the club until the outbreak of World War II.[7]The clubhouse was inaugurated on November 27, 1909.[4]
In 1921, President Warren G. Harding sent Forbes and Leonard Wood as heads of the Wood-Forbes Commission to investigate conditions in the Philippines.[1][8] The Commission concluded that Filipinos were not yet ready for independence from the United States, a finding that was widely criticized in the Philippines.[9]
As modest legacy from those years of service in Manila, the gated community of Forbes Park in Makati, was named after him; and this community is the residence of some of the wealthiest people in the country. Lacson Avenue (formerly Gov. Forbes Street) in Sampaloc, Manila is still called "Forbes" by some up to the present day.
Forbes was appointed by President Herbert Hoover in 1930 to lead a commission charged with investigating the reasons for ongoing minor rebellions in Haiti.[1]
Forbes was nominated By President Hoover and confirmed as United States Ambassador to Japan. He served from 1930 to 1932.[1]
Forbes received an LL.D. from Bates College in 1932. He was on the Board of Trustees, Carnegie Institution of Washington and a Life Member of the Corporation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was on the original standing committee of the Foundation for the Study of Cycles from 1941. He died unmarried in 1959.
His seasonal home Birdwood, a mansion built in the 1930s for him in southern Georgia, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
National championship Conference title Conference division title or championship game berth
Forbes papers are in the Houghton Library at Harvard University. Copies of his annotated journal are at the Library of Congress and the Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston. The report of the Forbes Commissions Haitian analysis is at the Library of Congress.
Peter W. Stanley, A Nation in the Making: The Philippines and the United States, 1899–1921 (1974)
Rev. Camillus Gott, "William Cameron Forbes and the Philippines, 1904–1946" (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1974)
Theodore Friend, Between Two Empires: The Ordeal of the Philippines, 1929–1946 (1965).
Gary Ross, "W. Cameron Forbes: The Diplomacy of a Darwinist," in R. D. Burns and E. M. Bennett, eds., Diplomats in Crisis (1974).
Robert H. Ferrell, American Diplomacy in the Great Depression: Hoover-Stimson Foreign Policy, 1929–1933 (1957)
Armin Rappaport, Henry L. Stimson and Japan, 1931–1933 (1963)
James B. Crowley, Japans Quest for Autonomy (1966).
1911 -- "As to Polo", Dedham Polo and Country Club.
1935 -- Fuddlehead by Fuddlehead (autobiography) the Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston.
1936 -- "A Survey of Developments in the Philippine Movement for Independence," Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1932–1936.
1939 -- "American Policies in the Far East," Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (January 1939).
The Philippines (/ˈfɪlɪpiːnz/ (listen); Filipino: Pilipinas),[15] officially the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas),[d] is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. It is situated in the western Pacific Ocean and consists of around 7,641 islands that are broadly categorized under three main geographical divisions from north to south: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Philippines is bounded by the South China Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Celebes Sea to the southwest. It shares maritime borders with Taiwan to the north, Japan to the northeast, Palau to the east and southeast, Indonesia to the south, Malaysia to the southwest, Vietnam to the west, and China to the northwest. The Philippines covers an area of 300,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi) and, as of 2021, it had a population of around 109 million people,[8] making it the worlds thirteenth-most populous country. The Philippines has diverse ethnicities and cultures throughout its islands. Manila is the countrys capital, while the largest city is Quezon City; both lie within the urban area of Metro Manila.
Negritos, some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Adoption of animism, Hinduism and Islam established island-kingdoms called Kedatuans, Rajahnates and Sultanates. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer leading a fleet for Spain, marked the beginning of Spanish colonization. In 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. Spanish settlement through Mexico, beginning in 1565, led to the Philippines becoming part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. During this time, Catholicism became the dominant religion, and Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade. In 1896, the Philippine Revolution began, which then became entwined with the 1898 Spanish–American War. Spain ceded the territory to the United States, while Filipino revolutionaries declared the First Philippine Republic. The ensuing Philippine–American War ended with the United States establishing control over the territory, which they maintained until the Japanese invasion of the islands during World War II. Following liberation, the Philippines became independent in 1946. Since then, the unitary sovereign state has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by the People Power Revolution.
The Philippines is an emerging market and a newly industrialized country whose economy is transitioning from being agriculture-centered to services- and manufacturing-centered. It is a founding member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and the East Asia Summit. The Philippiness position as an island country on the Pacific Ring of Fire that is close to the equator makes it prone to earthquakes and typhoons. The country has a variety of natural resources and is home to a globally significant level of biodiversity.
Contents
1Etymology
2History
2.1Prehistory (pre–900)
2.2Early states (900–1565)
2.3Colonial rule (1565–1946)
2.4Postcolonial period (1946–present)
3Geography and environment
3.1Biodiversity
3.2Climate
4Government and politics
4.1Foreign relations
4.2Military
4.3Administrative divisions
5Demographics
5.1Ethnic groups
5.2Languages
5.3Religion
5.4Health
5.5Education
6Economy
6.1Science and technology
6.2Tourism
7Infrastructure
7.1Transportation
7.2Water supply and sanitation
8Culture
8.1Values
8.2Architecture
8.3Performing arts
8.4Literature
8.5Cinema
8.6Mass media
8.7Cuisine
8.8Sports
9See also
10Notes
11References
11.1Citations
11.2Bibliography
12Further reading
13External links
13.1Government
13.2Trade
13.3General information
13.4Books and articles
13.5Wikimedia
13.6Others
Etymology
Main article: Name of the Philippines
Philip II of Spain
Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte and Samar "Felipinas" after Philip II of Spain, then the Prince of Asturias. Eventually the name "Las Islas Filipinas" would be used to cover the archipelagos Spanish possessions.[16] Before Spanish rule was established, other names such as Islas del Poniente (Islands of the West) and Magellans name for the islands, San Lázaro, were also used by the Spanish to refer to islands in the region.[17][18][19][20]
During the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the period of the Spanish–American War (1898) and the Philippine–American War (1899–1902) until the Commonwealth period (1935–1946), American colonial authorities referred to the country as The Philippine Islands, a translation of the Spanish name.[21] The United States began the process of changing the reference to the country from The Philippine Islands to The Philippines, specifically when it was mentioned in the Philippine Autonomy Act or the Jones Law.[22] The full official title, Republic of the Philippines, was included in the 1935 constitution as the name of the future independent state,[23] it is also mentioned in all succeeding constitutional revisions.[24][25]
History
Main article: History of the Philippines
Prehistory (pre–900)
Main article: Prehistory of the Philippines
There is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago.[26] A small number of bones from Callao Cave potentially represent an otherwise unknown species, Homo luzonensis, that lived around 50,000 to 67,000 years ago.[27][28] The oldest modern human remains found on the islands are from the Tabon Caves of Palawan, U/Th-dated to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago.[29] The Tabon Man is presumably a Negrito, who were among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, descendants of the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along southern Asia to the now sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul.[30]
The first Austronesians reached the Philippines at around 2200 BC, settling the Batanes Islands and northern Luzon from Taiwan. From there, they rapidly spread downwards to the rest of the islands of the Philippines and Southeast Asia.[31][32] This population assimilated with the existing Negritos resulting in the modern Filipino ethnic groups which display various ratios of genetic admixture between Austronesian and Negrito groups.[33] Genetic signatures also indicate the possibility of migration of Austroasiatic, Papuan, and South Asian people.[34] Jade artifacts have been found dated to 2000 BC,[35][36] with the lingling-o jade items crafted in Luzon made using raw materials originating from Taiwan.[37] By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four kinds of social groups: hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, highland plutocracies, and port principalities.[38]
Early states (900–1565)
Main article: History of the Philippines (900–1565)
The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, the oldest known writing found in the Philippines
The earliest known surviving written record found in the Philippines is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription.[39] By the 1300s, a number of the large coastal settlements had emerged as trading centers, and became the focal point of societal changes.[40] Some polities had exchanges with other states across Asia.[41][42][43][44][45][excessive citations] Trade with China is believed to have begun during the Tang dynasty, but grew more extensive during the Song dynasty.[46] By the 2nd millennium CE, some Philippine polities sent delegations participating in the tributary system of China.[47][41] Indian cultural traits, such as linguistic terms and religious practices, began to spread within the Philippines during the 10th century, likely via the Hindu Majapahit empire.[44][40][48] By the 15th century, Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from there.[49]
Polities founded in the Philippines from the 10th–16th centuries include Maynila,[50] Tondo, Namayan, Pangasinan, Cebu, Butuan, Maguindanao, Lanao, Sulu, and Ma-i.[51] The early polities were typically made up of three-tier social structure: a nobility class, a class of "freemen", and a class of dependent debtor-bondsmen.[40][41] Among the nobility were leaders called "Datus", responsible for ruling autonomous groups called "barangay" or "dulohan".[40] When these barangays banded together, either to form a larger settlement[40] or a geographically looser alliance,[41] the more esteemed among them would be recognized as a "paramount datu",[40][38] rajah, or sultan[52] which headed the community state.[53] Warfare developed and escalated during the 14th to 16th centuries[54] and throughout these periods population density is thought to have been low,[55] which is also due to the common frequency of natural disasters.[56] The Luções from Luzon then had economic and military influence in South, Southeast and East Asia.[57] In 1521, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the area, claimed the islands for Spain, and was then killed by Lapulapus fighters at the Battle of Mactan.[58]
Colonial rule (1565–1946)
Main articles: History of the Philippines (1565–1898) and History of the Philippines (1898–1946)
Manila (1847)
Colonization began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565.[59][60]: 20–23 In 1571, Spanish Manila became the capital of the Spanish East Indies,[61] which encompassed Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.[62][63] The Spanish successfully invaded the different local states by employing the principle of divide and conquer,[64] bringing most of what is now the Philippines into a single unified administration.[65][66] Disparate barangays were deliberately consolidated into towns, where Catholic missionaries were more easily able to convert the inhabitants to Christianity.[67]: 53, 68 [68] From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as part of the Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain, later administered from Madrid following the Mexican War of Independence.[69] Manila was the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade.[70] Manila galleons were constructed in Bicol and Cavite.[71][72]
During its rule, Spain quelled various indigenous revolts,[73] as well as defending against external military challenges.[74][75][failed verification] Spanish forces included soldiers from elsewhere in New Spain as well as broader Latin America, many of whom deserted and intermingled with the wider population.[76][77][78] Immigration blurred the racial caste system[67]: 98 [79][80] Spain maintained in towns and cities.[81] War against the Dutch from the West, in the 17th century, together with conflict with the Muslims in the South nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury.[82]
Administration of the Philippine islands were considered a drain on the economy of Spain,[74] and there were debates to abandon it or trade it for other territory. However, this was opposed due to economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the islands and the surrounding region.[83][84] The Philippines survived on an annual subsidy provided by the Spanish Crown,[74] which averaged 250,000 pesos[85] and was usually paid through the provision of 75 tons of silver bullion being sent from the Americas.[86]
British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years War, with Spanish rule restored through the 1763 Treaty of Paris.[60]: 81–83 The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista.[87] The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years. In the last quarter of the 19th century, Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Jolo,[88] and the Moro Muslims in the Sultanate of Sulu formally recognized Spanish sovereignty.[89][90]
Filipino Ilustrados in Spain formed the Propaganda Movement. Photographed in 1890.
In the 19th century, Philippine ports opened to world trade and shifts started occurring within Filipino society.[91][92] The Latin American wars of independence and renewed immigration led to shifts in social identity, with the term Filipino shifting from referring to Spaniards born in the Philippines to a term encompassing all people in the archipelago. This identity shift was driven by wealthy families of mixed ancestry, to which it became a national identity.[93][94]
Revolutionary sentiments were stoked in 1872 after three activist Catholic priests were executed on weak pretences.[95][96][97] This would inspire a propaganda movement in Spain, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, lobbying for political reforms in the Philippines. Rizal was eventually executed on December 30, 1896, on charges of rebellion. This radicalized many who had previously been loyal to Spain.[98] As attempts at reform met with resistance, Andrés Bonifacio in 1892 established the militant secret society called the Katipunan, who sought independence from Spain through armed revolt.[99]
The Katipunan started the Philippine Revolution in 1896.[100] Internal disputes led to an election in which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected as the new leader of the revolution.[101]: 145–147 In 1897, the Pact of Biak-na-Bato brought about the exile of the revolutionary leadership to Hong Kong. In 1898, the Spanish–American War began and reached the Philippines. Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898.[67]: 112–113 The First Philippine Republic was established on January 21, 1899.[102]
General Douglas MacArthur coming ashore during the Battle of Leyte on October 20, 1944
The islands had been ceded by Spain to the United States alongside Puerto Rico and Guam as a result of the latters victory in the Spanish–American War.[103][104] As it became increasingly clear the United States would not recognize the First Philippine Republic, the Philippine–American War broke out.[105] The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, mostly due to famine and disease.[106] After the defeat of the First Philippine Republic, an American civilian government was established.[107] American forces continued to secure and extend their control over the islands, suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic,[101]: 200–202 [108] securing the Sultanate of Sulu,[109] and establishing control over interior mountainous areas that had resisted Spanish conquest.[110]
Cultural developments strengthened the continuing development of a national identity,[111][112] and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages.[67]: 121 Governmental functions were gradually devolved to Filipinos under the Taft Commission[113] and in 1935 the Philippines was granted Commonwealth status with Manuel Quezon as president and Sergio Osmeña as vice president.[114] Quezons priorities were defence, social justice, inequality and economic diversification, and national character.[113] Tagalog was designated the national language,[115] womens suffrage was introduced,[116] and land reform mooted.[117][118]
During World War II the Japanese Empire invaded[119] and the Second Philippine Republic, under Jose P. Laurel, was established as a puppet state.[120][121] From 1942 the Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerrilla activity.[122][123][124] Atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war, including the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre.[125][126] Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945. By the end of the war it is estimated that over a million Filipinos had died.[127][128] On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became one of the founding members of the United Nations.[129][130] On July 4, 1946, the Philippines was officially recognized by the United States as an independent nation through the Treaty of Manila, during the presidency of Manuel Roxas.[130][131][132]
Postcolonial period (1946–present)
Main articles: History of the Philippines (1946–1965), History of the Philippines (1965–1986), and History of the Philippines (1986–present)
Efforts to end the Hukbalahap Rebellion began during Elpidio Quirinos term,[133] however, it was only during Ramon Magsaysays presidency that the movement was suppressed.[134] Magsaysays successor, Carlos P. Garcia, initiated the Filipino First Policy,[135] which was continued by Diosdado Macapagal, with celebration of Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12, the date of Emilio Aguinaldos declaration,[136][137] and pursuit of a claim on the eastern part of North Borneo.[138][139]
In 1965, Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos. Early in his presidency, Marcos initiated numerous infrastructure projects[140] but, together with his wife Imelda, was accused of corruption and embezzling billions of dollars in public funds.[141] Nearing the end of his term, Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1972.[142][143] This period of his rule was characterized by political repression, censorship, and human rights violations.[144]
On August 21, 1983, Marcos chief rival, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr., was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport. Marcos called a snap presidential election in 1986.[145] Marcos was proclaimed the winner, but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent.[146] The resulting protests led to the People Power Revolution,[147] which forced Marcos and his allies to flee to Hawaii, and Aquinos widow, Corazon Aquino, was installed as president.[145][148]
The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo was the second largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century.
The return of democracy and government reforms beginning in 1986 were hampered by national debt, government corruption, and coup attempts.[149][150] A communist insurgency[151][152] and a military conflict with Moro separatists persisted,[153] while the administration also faced a series of disasters, including the sinking of the MV Doña Paz in December 1987,[154] and the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991.[155][156] Aquino was succeeded by Fidel V. Ramos, whose economic performance, at 3.6% growth rate,[157][158] was overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[159][160]
Ramos successor, Joseph Estrada, was overthrown by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and succeeded by his vice president, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, on January 20, 2001.[161] Arroyos 9-year administration was marked by economic growth,[162] but was tainted by corruption and political scandals.[163][164] On November 23, 2009, 34 journalists and several civilians were killed in Maguindanao.[165][166]
Geography and environment
Main articles: Geography of the Philippines and List of islands of the Philippines
Topography of the Philippines
The Philippines is an archipelago composed of about 7,640 islands,[182][183] covering a total area, including inland bodies of water, of around 300,000 square kilometers (115,831 sq mi),[184][185] with cadastral survey data suggesting it may be larger.[186] Its 36,289 kilometers (22,549 mi) coastline gives it the worlds fifth-longest coastline.[187] The EEZ of the Philippines covers 2,263,816 km2 (874,064 sq mi).[188] It is located between 116° 40, and 126° 34 E longitude and 4° 40 and 21° 10 N latitude and is bordered by the Philippine Sea to the east,[189][190] the South China Sea to the west,[191] and the Celebes Sea to the south.[192] The island of Borneo is located a few hundred kilometers southwest,[193] and Taiwan is located directly to the north. Sulawesi is located to the southwest and Palau is located to the east of the islands.[194][195]
The highest mountain is Mount Apo. It measures up to 2,954 meters (9,692 ft) above sea level and is located on the island of Mindanao.[196] Running east of the archipelago, the Philippine Trench extends 10,540-meter (34,580 ft) down at the Emden Deep.[197][198][199] The longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon, measuring about 520 kilometers (320 mi).[200] Manila Bay,[201] upon the shore of which the capital city of Manila lies, is connected to Laguna de Bay,[202] the largest lake in the Philippines, by the Pasig River.[203] The Puerto Princesa Subterranean River, which runs 8.2 kilometers (5.1 mi) underground through a karst landscape before reaching the ocean, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[204]
Mayon is an active stratovolcano, located in the south of the island of Luzon
Situated on the western fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Philippines experiences frequent seismic and volcanic activity.[205] The Philippine region is seismically active and has been progressively constructed by plates converging towards each other in multiple directions.[206][207][208] Around five earthquakes are registered daily, though most are too weak to be felt.[209][208] The last major earthquakes were the 1976 Moro Gulf earthquake and the 1990 Luzon earthquake.[210] There are many active volcanoes such as the Mayon Volcano, Mount Pinatubo, and Taal Volcano.[211] The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 produced the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century.[212] The Philippines is the worlds second-biggest geothermal energy producer behind the United States, with 18% of the countrys electricity needs being met by geothermal power.[213]
The country has valuable[214] mineral deposits as a result of its complex geologic structure and high level of seismic activity.[215][216] The Philippines are thought to have the second-largest gold deposits after South Africa, along with a large amount of copper deposits,[217] and the worlds largest deposits of palladium.[218] Other minerals include chromite, nickel, and zinc. Despite this, a lack of law enforcement, poor management, opposition due to the presence of indigenous communities, and past instances of environmental damage and disaster, have resulted in these mineral resources remaining largely untapped.[217][219]
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of the Philippines
See also: List of threatened species of the Philippines
The Philippine Eagle is endemic to the forests of the country.
The Philippines is a megadiverse country.[220][221] Eight major types of forests are distributed throughout the Philippines; dipterocarp, beach forest, pine forest, molave forest, lower montane forest, upper montane or mossy forest, mangroves, and ultrabasic forest.[222] As of 2021, the Philippines has only 7 million hectares of forest cover left, according to official estimates (roughly 23% of the countrys total land area), though experts contend that the actual figure is likely much lower.[223] Deforestation, often the result of illegal logging, is an acute problem in the Philippines. Forest cover declined from 70% of the Philippiness total land area in 1900 to about 18.3% in 1999.[224]
Around 1,100 land vertebrate species can be found in the Philippines including over 100 mammal species and 243 bird species not thought to exist elsewhere.[225][226] The Philippines has among the highest rates of discovery in the world with sixteen new species of mammals discovered in the last ten years. Because of this, the rate of endemism for the Philippines has risen and likely will continue to rise.[227] Parts of its marine waters contain the highest diversity of shorefish species in the world.[228]
Large reptiles include the Philippine crocodile[229] and saltwater crocodile.[230] The largest crocodile in captivity, known locally as Lolong, was captured in the southern island of Mindanao,[231] and died on February 10, 2013, from pneumonia and cardiac arrest.[232] The national bird, known as the Philippine eagle, has the longest body of any eagle; it generally measures 86 to 102 cm (2.82 to 3.35 ft) in length and weighs 4.7 to 8.0 kg (10.4 to 17.6 lb).[233][234] The Philippine eagle is part of the family Accipitridae and is endemic to the rainforests of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao.[235] The Philippines has the third highest number of endemic birds in the world (behind Indonesia and Australia) with 243 endemics. Notable birds include the Celestial monarch, flame-templed babbler, Red-vented cockatoo, Whiskered pitta, Sulu hornbill, Rufous hornbill, Luzon bleeding-heart and the Flame-breasted fruit dove.[226]
A male Celestial monarch seen in Bislig.
Philippine maritime waters encompass as much as 2,200,000 square kilometers (849,425 sq mi) producing unique and diverse marine life,[236] an important part of the Coral Triangle, a territory shared with other countries.[237][238] The total number of corals and marine fish species was estimated at 500 and 2,400 respectively.[225] New records[239][240] and species discoveries continue.[241][242][243] The Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea was declared a World Heritage Site in 1993.[244] Philippine waters also sustain the cultivation of fish, crustaceans, oysters, and seaweeds.[245] One species of oyster, Pinctada maxima, produces pearls that are naturally golden in color.[246] Pearls have been declared a "National Gem".[247]
With an estimated 13,500 plant species in the country, 3,200 of which are unique to the islands,[225] Philippine rainforests boast an array of flora,[248] including many rare types of orchids[249] and rafflesia.[250] Many species are endangered and scientists say that Southeast Asia, which the Philippines is part of, faces a catastrophic extinction rate of 20% by the end of the 21st century due in part to habitat loss resulting from deforestation.[251]
Climate
Main article: Climate of the Philippines
Köppen climate classification of the Philippines
The Philippines has a tropical maritime climate that is usually hot and humid. There are three seasons: a hot dry season or summer from March to May; a rainy season from June to November; and a cool dry season from December to February. The southwest monsoon lasts from May to October, and the northeast monsoon from November to April. Temperatures usually range from 21 °C (70 °F) to 32 °C (90 °F). The coolest month is January; the warmest is May.[252]
The average yearly temperature is around 26.6 °C (79.9 °F). In considering temperature, location in terms of latitude and longitude is not a significant factor, and temperatures at sea level tend to be in the same range. Altitude usually has more of an impact. The average annual temperature of Baguio at an elevation of 1,500 meters (4,900 ft) above sea level is 18.3 °C (64.9 °F), making it a popular destination during hot summers.[252] Annual rainfall measures as much as 5,000 millimeters (200 in) in the mountainous east coast section but less than 1,000 millimeters (39 in) in some of the sheltered valleys.[253]
Sitting astride the typhoon belt, the islands experience 15–20 typhoons annually from July to October,[253] with around nineteen typhoons[254] entering the Philippine area of responsibility in a typical year and eight or nine making landfall.[255][256] Historically typhoons were sometimes referred to as baguios.[257] The wettest recorded typhoon to hit the Philippines dropped 2,210 millimeters (87 in) in Baguio from July 14 to 18, 1911.[258] The Philippines is highly exposed to climate change and is among the worlds ten countries that are most vulnerable to climate change risks.[259]
Government and politics
Main articles: Politics of the Philippines and Government of the Philippines
See also: Political history of the Philippines
Malacañan Palace is the official residence of the president of the Philippines.
The Philippines has a democratic government in the form of a constitutional republic with a presidential system.[260] The president functions as both head of state and head of government[261] and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.[260] The president is elected by popular vote for a single six-year term.[262] The president appoints and presides over the cabinet.[263]: 213–214 Rodrigo Duterte was elected to a six-year term as president in 2016.[171] The bicameral Congress is composed of the Senate, serving as the upper house, with members elected to a six-year term, and the House of Representatives, serving as the lower house, with members elected to a three-year term.[264] Philippine politics tends to be dominated by those with well-known names, such as members of political dynasties or celebrities.[265][266]
Senators are elected at large[264] while the representatives are elected from both legislative districts and through sectoral representation.[263]: 162–163 The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court, composed of a chief justice as its presiding officer and fourteen associate justices,[267] all of whom are appointed by the president from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council.[260] The capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both within the single urban area of Metro Manila.[268]
There have been attempts to change the government to a federal, unicameral, or parliamentary government since the Ramos administration.[269] There is a significant amount of corruption in the Philippines,[270][271][272] which some historians attribute to the system of governance put in place during the Spanish colonial period.[273]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of the Philippines
President Rodrigo Duterte and U.S. President Donald Trump discuss matters during a bilateral meeting in November 2017.
As a founding and active member of the United Nations,[274] the country has been elected to the Security Council.[275] Carlos P. Romulo was a former president of the United Nations General Assembly.[276][277] The country is an active participant in peacekeeping missions, particularly in East Timor.[278][279] Over 10 million Filipinos live and work overseas.[280][281]
The Philippines is a founding and active member of ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations).[282] It has hosted several summits and is an active contributor to the direction and policies of the bloc.[283][284] It is also a member of the East Asia Summit (EAS),[285] the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Group of 24, and the Non-Aligned Movement.[286][better source needed] The country is also seeking to obtain observer status in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.[287][288]
The Philippines has a long relationship with the United States, covering economics, security, and people-to-people relations.[289] A mutual defense treaty between the two countries was signed in 1951, and supplemented later with the 1999 Visiting Forces Agreement and the 2016 Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement.[290] The Philippines supported American policies during the Cold War and participated in the Korean and Vietnam wars.[291][292] In 2003 the Philippines was designated a Major non-NATO ally.[293]
Under President Duterte ties with the United States have weakened[294] with military purchases instead coming from China and Russia,[295][296] while Duterte states that the Philippines will no longer participate in any US-led wars.[297] In 2021, it was revealed the United States would defend the Philippines including the South China Sea.[298]
The Philippines attaches great importance to its relations with China, and has established significant cooperation with the country.[299][300][301][302][303][304] Japan is the biggest bilateral contributor of official development assistance to the country.[305][306][307] Although historical tensions exist due to the events of World War II, much of the animosity has faded.[308]
Historical and cultural ties continue to affect relations with Spain.[309][310] Relations with Middle Eastern countries are shaped by the high number of Filipinos working in these countries,[311] and by issues related to the Muslim minority in the Philippines.[312] Concerns have been raised regarding issues such as domestic abuse and war affecting[313][314] the approximately 2.5 million overseas Filipino workers in the region.[315]
The Philippines has claims in the Spratly Islands which overlap with claims by China, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam. The largest of its controlled islands in Thitu Island, which contains the Philippines's smallest village.[316][317] The Scarborough Shoal standoff in 2012, where China took control of the shoal from the Philippines, led to an international arbitration case[318] and has made the shoal a prominent symbol in the wider dispute.[319] The Philippines also has claims on Sabah, which is disputed by Malaysia.[320][321]
Military
Main article: Armed Forces of the Philippines
BRP Jose Rizal (FF-150) is the lead ship of her class of guided missile frigates of the Philippine Navy
The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) consist of three branches: the Philippine Air Force, the Philippine Army, and the Philippine Navy.[322] The Armed Forces of the Philippines are a volunteer force.[323] Civilian security is handled by the Philippine National Police under the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG).[324][325]
In Bangsamoro, the largest separatist organizations, the Moro National Liberation Front and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front were engaging the government politically as of 2007.[326][needs update] Other more militant groups like the Abu Sayyaf have kidnapped foreigners for ransom, particularly in the Sulu Archipelago.[328][329][330][331] Their presence decreased due to successful security provided by the Philippine government.[332][333] The Communist Party of the Philippines and its military wing, the New Peoples Army, have been waging guerrilla warfare against the government since the 1970s, reaching its apex in 1986 when Communist guerrillas gained control of a fifth of the countrys territory, before significantly dwindling militarily and politically after the return of democracy in 1986.[334][335] As of 2018, $2.843 billion,[336] or 1.1 percent of GDP is spent on military forces.[337]
Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of the Philippines
The Philippines is governed as a unitary state, with the exception of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM),[338] although there have been several steps towards decentralization within the unitary framework.[339][340] A 1991 law devolved some powers to local governments.[341] The country is divided into 17 regions, 81 provinces, 146 cities, 1,488 municipalities, and 42,036 barangays.[342] Regions other than Bangsamoro serve primarily to organize the provinces of the country for administrative convenience.[343] As of 2015, Calabarzon was the most populated region while the National Capital Region (NCR) the most densely populated.[344]
Administrative map of the Philippines
Regions of the Philippines
DesignationNameRegional centerArea[344]Population
(as of 2015)[345]% of PopulationPopulation density[344]
NCRNational Capital RegionManila619.54 km2 (239.21 sq mi)12,877,25312.75%20,785/km2 (53,830/sq mi)
Region IIlocos RegionSan Fernando (La Union)12,964.62 km2 (5,005.67 sq mi)5,026,1284.98%388/km2 (1,000/sq mi)
CARCordillera Administrative RegionBaguio19,818.12 km2 (7,651.82 sq mi)1,722,0061.71%87/km2 (230/sq mi)
Region IICagayan ValleyTuguegarao29,836.88 km2 (11,520.08 sq mi)3,451,4103.42%116/km2 (300/sq mi)
Region IIICentral LuzonSan Fernando (Pampanga)22,014.63 km2 (8,499.90 sq mi)11,218,17711.11%512/km2 (1,330/sq mi)
Region IV-ACalabarzonCalamba16,576.26 km2 (6,400.13 sq mi)14,414,77414.27%870/km2 (2,300/sq mi)
MimaropaSouthwestern Tagalog RegionCalapan29,606.25 km2 (11,431.04 sq mi)2,963,3602.93%100/km2 (260/sq mi)
Region VBicol RegionLegazpi City18,114.47 km2 (6,994.04 sq mi)5,796,9895.74%320/km2 (830/sq mi)
Region VIWestern VisayasIloilo City20,778.29 km2 (8,022.54 sq mi)7,536,3837.46%363/km2 (940/sq mi)
Region VIICentral VisayasCebu City15,872.58 km2 (6,128.44 sq mi)7,396,8987.33%466/km2 (1,210/sq mi)
Region VIIIEastern VisayasTacloban23,234.78 km2 (8,971.00 sq mi)4,440,1504.40%191/km2 (490/sq mi)
Region IXZamboanga PeninsulaPagadian[346]16,904.03 km2 (6,526.68 sq mi)3,629,7833.59%215/km2 (560/sq mi)
Region XNorthern MindanaoCagayan de Oro20,458.51 km2 (7,899.07 sq mi)4,689,3024.64%229/km2 (590/sq mi)
Region XIDavao RegionDavao City20,433.38 km2 (7,889.37 sq mi)4,893,3184.85%239/km2 (620/sq mi)
Region XIISoccsksargenKoronadal22,610.08 km2 (8,729.80 sq mi)4,245,8384.20%188/km2 (490/sq mi)
Region XIIICaragaButuan21,120.56 km2 (8,154.69 sq mi)2,596,7092.57%123/km2 (320/sq mi)
BARMMBangsamoroCotabato City36,826.95 km2 (14,218.96 sq mi)4,080,8254.04%111/km2 (290/sq mi)
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of the Philippines
The Commission on Population estimated the countrys population to be 107,190,081 as of December 31, 2018, based on the latest population census of 2015 conducted by the Philippine Statistics Authority.[347] The population increased from 1990 to 2008 by approximately 28 million, a 45% growth in that time frame.[348] The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1877 and recorded a population of 5,567,685.[349]
A third of the population resides in Metro Manila and its immediately neighboring regions.[350] The 2.34% average annual population growth rate between 1990 and 2000 decreased to an estimated 1.90% for the 2000–2010 period.[351] Government attempts to reduce population growth have been a contentious issue.[352] The populations median age is 22.7 years with 60.9% aged from 15 to 64 years old.[7] Life expectancy at birth is 69.4 years, 73.1 years for females and 65.9 years for males.[353] Poverty incidence dropped to 21.6% in 2015 from 25.2% in 2012.[354]
Metro Manila is the most populous of the 3 defined metropolitan areas in the Philippines[355] and the 5th most populous in the world.[356] Census data from 2015 showed it had a population of 12,877,253 constituting almost 13% of the national population.[357] Including suburbs in the adjacent provinces (Bulacan, Cavite, Laguna, and Rizal) of Greater Manila, the population is around 23,088,000.[356] Across the country, the Philippines has a total urbanization rate of 51.2 percent.[357] Metro Manilas gross regional product was estimated as of 2009 to be ₱468.4 billion (at constant 1985 prices) and accounts for 33% of the nations GDP.[358] In 2011 Manila ranked as the 28th wealthiest urban agglomeration in the world and the 2nd in Southeast Asia.[359]
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Largest cities in the Philippines
2020 Philippine census of population and housing
RankNameRegionPop.RankNameRegionPop.
Quezon City
Quezon City
Manila
Manila1Quezon CityNational Capital Region2,960,04811ValenzuelaNational Capital Region714,978Davao City
Davao City
Caloocan
Caloocan
2ManilaNational Capital Region1,846,51312DasmariñasCalabarzon703,141
3Davao CityDavao Region1,776,94913General SantosSoccsksargen697,315
4CaloocanNational Capital Region1,661,58414ParañaqueNational Capital Region689,992
5Zamboanga CityZamboanga Peninsula977,23415BacoorCalabarzon664,625
6Cebu CityCentral Visayas964,16916San Jose del MonteCentral Luzon651,813
7AntipoloCalabarzon887,39917MakatiNational Capital Region629,616
8TaguigNational Capital Region886,72218Las PiñasNational Capital Region606,293
9PasigNational Capital Region803,15919BacolodWestern Visayas600,783
10Cag.
PHOTO DE vendu PRESSE 1930 GOUVERNEUR GÉNÉRAL DES PHILIPPINES DES ÉTATS-UNIS AVEC AMBASSADEUR CAMERON FORBES
